By symptom: what do you notice in your child?
You do not need to know the name of the diagnosis. Find the sign you have noticed: below it are detailed pages on conditions it may be linked to.
No testicle can be felt in the scrotum
- Undescended testicle (cryptorchidism)If a testicle hasn't come down into the scrotum: when it may descend on its own, why surgery is advised at 6–12 months, and what is done if it can't be felt.
- Retractile testicle: the "shy" testicle that pulls upA testicle that pulls up in the cold or when touched but can be brought down into the scrotum: why it is usually normal and why yearly checks are needed.
Sudden testicular pain
Sudden testicular pain is an emergency until torsion has been ruled out. Do not wait for the pain to pass: seek emergency care right away. Call emergency services
- Testicular torsionSudden testicular pain in a child or teen: signs of testicular torsion, why hours matter and what to do.
- Epididymitis and orchitis: inflammation of the testicleInflammation of the testicle and epididymis in children: causes, how it differs from torsion, treatment, and when the urinary tract needs testing.
Swelling in the scrotum or groin
- Hydrocele: fluid in the scrotumFluid swelling of the scrotum in babies: why it often goes away on its own, how it differs from an inguinal hernia, and when surgery is needed.
- Inguinal hernia in childrenA bulge in a child's groin that appears with crying: why it forms, how to recognize an incarcerated hernia, and why surgery shouldn't be delayed.
Visible veins in the scrotum of a teenager
The foreskin does not retract
- Phimosis: when the foreskin does not retractA foreskin that does not retract is usually normal in children. When treatment is needed, how to use the cream, and why it must never be forced back.
- Balanoposthitis: inflammation of the foreskinRedness, swelling or pus at the tip of a child's penis: causes, home care, when antibiotics are needed, and when circumcision is discussed.
The foreskin is pulled back and stuck
If the foreskin is stuck tight behind the head of the penis and will not go back, seek urgent medical care. Do not wait for severe pain. Call emergency services
The urinary opening is not at the tip of the penis
- Hypospadias: when the urinary opening is too lowWhat hypospadias is, its types, why a baby whose foreskin covers only the top of the penis should not be circumcised, the best timing for surgery and results.
- Epispadias: a urethra that is open on the top sideWhat epispadias is in boys and girls, how the isolated form differs from the exstrophy-epispadias complex, its link with urinary leakage, repair operations and follow-up.
The penis looks small
- Buried (concealed) penisThe penis looks small but is normal in size: causes of buried penis, how it differs from micropenis, why to delay circumcision, and when surgery is needed.
- Micropenis and normal penis size in boys by ageNormal penis size in boys by age, how to measure it correctly, how micropenis differs from buried penis, hormonal causes and testosterone treatment.
The penis is curved
- Congenital penile curvature and torsion in childrenCongenital penile curvature and rotation of the penis around its own axis: how much is normal and when correction is considered.
- Hypospadias: when the urinary opening is too lowWhat hypospadias is, its types, why a baby whose foreskin covers only the top of the penis should not be circumcised, the best timing for surgery and results.
A problem after circumcision
- Problems after circumcision and how they are correctedBleeding, meatal stenosis, skin bridges, too little or too much skin removed, trapped penis: what is normal healing after circumcision and what needs repair.
- Meatal stenosis: narrowing of the urinary openingA thin, upward-directed urine stream and pain on urinating after circumcision: signs of meatal stenosis and the minor corrective operation (meatotomy).
Wets the bed at night
Daytime wetting, rushes to the toilet often
- Daytime wetting and frequent urinationDaytime wetting after toilet training, urgency, squatting to hold urine: causes, evaluation and treatment with urotherapy.
- Bladder and bowel dysfunction: constipation and wettingWhy constipation causes wetting and urinary tract infections, and how to recognize and treat constipation in a child.
Fever and burning when peeing
- Urinary tract infection in childrenSigns of urinary tract infection in children by age, how to collect a urine sample correctly, treatment and which children need further tests.
- Pyelonephritis: kidney infection in childrenFebrile kidney infection in children: signs, length of treatment, risk of kidney scarring and which tests are needed.
- Vesicoureteral reflux (VUR): urine flowing back upUrine flowing back from the bladder to the kidney in children: grades, infection and scarring risk, prophylaxis, endoscopic and open treatment.
Blood in the urine
- Blood in a child's urine (hematuria)If your baby's or child's urine is red, pink or brown: is it really blood, possible causes, which tests are needed and when to seek urgent care.
- Kidney stones in childrenKidney and ureteral stones in children: symptoms, why every child needs a metabolic workup, stone passage, ESWL, endoscopic and percutaneous treatment.
Weak or dribbling urine stream
- Posterior urethral valves (PUV)A congenital membrane narrowing the urethra in boys: signs in pregnancy and after birth, endoscopic valve ablation, and why lifelong follow-up matters.
- Meatal stenosis: narrowing of the urinary openingA thin, upward-directed urine stream and pain on urinating after circumcision: signs of meatal stenosis and the minor corrective operation (meatotomy).
- Neurogenic bladder: bladder dysfunction caused by the nervesThe bladder in spina bifida and other nervous system conditions: protecting the kidneys, catheterization, medication, botulinum toxin, surgery.
Ultrasound shows a dilated kidney
- Hydronephrosis: kidney dilation in childrenWhat kidney dilation on ultrasound in pregnancy or after birth means, when monitoring is enough, and when tests and surgery are needed.
- Ureteropelvic junction (UPJ) obstructionThe most common cause of hydronephrosis needing surgery in children: symptoms, diagnosis with MAG3/DTPA, and when pyeloplasty is needed.
- Megaureter: a dilated ureterA dilated ureter in children: types, why it often improves on its own, and when antibiotic prophylaxis and surgery are needed.
A girl’s labia are stuck together
This page does not make a diagnosis. One sign can have different causes; a doctor makes the exact assessment after an examination.